Ecological Entomology

Landscape composition is central in shaping how pollinators utilise floral resources, yet its influence on foraging behaviour of co-occurring Asian honey bees remains underexplored. Resolving this gap is crucial to understand how closely-related, native and introduced species maintain foraging efficiency in rapidly changing environments. We investigated nectar preferences, sucrose responsiveness, and foraging task partitioning in three co-occurring honey bee species in India: Apis florea (native open-nesting), Apis cerana (native cavity-nesting), and Apis mellifera (introduced cavity-nesting), across forest, agricultural, and urban landscapes. Landscape type strongly influenced crop sugar concentrations of honey bees. While all species collected high-concentration nectar in forests, A. mellifera and A. cerana collected lower concentrations than A. florea in urban habitats. A. florea showed consistent preference for high-concentration nectar across landscapes. Complementing this, sucrose responsiveness assays revealed a lower responsiveness of A. florea compared to cavity-nesting species. Foraging task partitioning differed among species, but interestingly, also among landscapes. While A. cerana predominantly collected nectar, A. mellifera foraged equally for pollen, nectar and water, and A. florea shifted task allocation across landscapes. In conclusion, we provide the first comparative evidence that landscape composition and species characteristics jointly shape foraging preferences and organisation of foraging labour in Asian honey bees.

Local temperatures can shape the ability of introduced species to flourish and disrupt novel environments. The emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), is an invasive beetle that threatens ash trees in North America and Europe. To assess the role of temperature on EAB reproduction, we reared groups of adult beetles at one of four temperatures (12, 15, 18, and 21 {degrees}C) and measured reproductive success (laying fertilized eggs and egg hatching). There was no effect of rearing temperature on EAB female lifespans but no eggs laid at 15 or 18 {degrees}C hatched, suggesting these temperatures disrupt the reproductive process of EAB. Females reared at 21 {degrees}C, however, consistently laid eggs that hatched. We then used these results to assess the likelihood of reproductive success over the previous ten years in eight cities in Canada that host EAB. All locations experienced temperatures of [≥] 21 {degrees}C, but the number of hours and the number of days above this critical temperature were highly variable. There were ample opportunities in all locations for EAB to reproduce, but EAB in cooler cities would experience thermal limitations thus slowing the spread of EAB populations.

O_LIPhenological shifts are a major ecological consequence of climate change, yet studies often focus on single life stages meaning that the potential for carryover effects between life stages remains poorly understood. Failing to account for these effects may lead to inaccurate estimates of phenological shifts, with consequences for predicted synchrony among interacting species. This is especially relevant for temperate systems where climate warming is occurring unevenly across the year. C_LIO_LIHere, we investigated how temperature experienced the previous autumn and winter (during the pupal and egg stage) influences spring phenology in the winter moth (Operophtera brumata), a herbivorous insect with distinct life stages. Using 50 years of local climate data to create five experimental temperature regimes, we first quantified phenotypic plasticity in the duration and temporal variability of pupal and egg development. We then examined how timing of adult moth emergence affects timing of offspring hatching. C_LIO_LIWe found divergent effects of temperature on different life stages; pupal development time was shortest at intermediate temperatures while egg development time decreased linearly with increasing temperature. Furthermore, phenological shifts due to the conditions experienced by the mother were carried over to influence the phenology of her offspring. While this carryover effect was partially compensated during subsequent stages, compensation decreased under warming conditions. C_LIO_LIThese results refine our understanding of the sensitivity of the annual cycle of winter moth phenology to variation in temperature with potential implications for population dynamics and interspecific interactions. Overall, our findings highlight the need to consider the impacts of warming across multiple life stages so that carryover effects can be properly accounted for. Doing so will improve predictions of phenological shifts under future climates. C_LI

The connection between female host plant preference and offspring performance is important for understanding how relationships between plants and phytophagous insects have evolved. According to the preference-performance hypothesis, female insects should evolve to oviposit on host plants on which offspring performance is the highest. Here, we examined the preference-performance hypothesis in the northern brown argus (Aricia artaxerxes) butterfly in the province of Uppland, Sweden, by comparing female host plant preference and larval growth between the host plant species wood cranesbill (Geranium sylvaticum) and bloody cranesbill (G. sanguineum). We also investigated if host plant preference in A. artaxerxes was related to the geographic distribution of A. artaxerxes and its host plants in the province Uppland. We found that the A. artaxerxes females, contrary to the preference-performance hypothesis, preferred ovipositing on G. sylvaticum, even though larvae feeding on G. sylvaticum were slightly smaller than those feeding on G. sanguineum. Since G. sylvaticum is more abundant and probably more utilized than G. sanguineum in Uppland, an explanation for this negative preference-performance connection may be that there are advantages associated with utilizing a more common host plant species, even though larvae feeding on this plant show reduced growth rates. Overall, the results show that factors other than offspring performance, such as geographic distribution, may influence female host plant preference in A. artaxerxes.

Istocheta aldrichi (Diptera: Tachinidae) is a specialist parasitoid of the invasive Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Research and releases for biological control depend on field collecting parasitized hosts and rearing the parasitoid through diapause to obtain I. aldrichi adults. This study investigated how rearing practices before, during and after the seasonal overwintering period affected the proportion of I. aldrichi pupae that emerged as adults, the timing of parasitoid emergence, and their longevity. Increasing cold exposure duration during overwintering increased adult I. aldrichi emergence from puparia and reduced development time after transfer to warm conditions. Adult I. aldrichi emergence from overwintered puparia depended on interactions between overwintering environment (indoors vs. outdoors), spring thermal regime, and the timing of host collection in the previous season. Burying puparia in the soil in late summer/early fall resulted in higher subsequent adult I. aldrichi emergence. Manipulating spring temperatures in controlled environments allowed parasitoid emergence to be staggered over several weeks without reducing emergence success. Emergence under outdoor spring conditions was unreliable. Adult longevity was affected by temperature and diet: cooler conditions extended lifespan, honey-water increased longevity relative to pollen alone or honey-water and pollen together. These results provide a foundation to further improve I. aldrichi rearing techniques for use in experimental research and applied biological control of P. japonica.

O_LIAbundance of insect herbivores often depends on host plant suitability for their specialised immature stages. Suitability can be strongly influenced by both microclimate and the nutritional quality of the plants themselves. Where soil nitrogen is high, host plants tend to have high nutritional quality, but vigorous growth of surrounding vegetation reduces microclimatic temperatures. Thus, thermophilous insects may face a choice between host plants with optimal microclimates and those with optimal nutritional quality. C_LIO_LIWe investigated how microclimate and nitrogen content influence oviposition choices by the declining Small Copper butterfly, Lycaena phlaeas, on its host plant, Rumex acetosa. We predicted that warmer plants would have lower nitrogen content, and that butterflies would choose cooler, high-nitrogen plants during warmer ambient conditions. C_LIO_LIAlthough warmer R. acetosa plants had lower nitrogen content, L. phlaeas consistently chose to lay eggs on plants in warm microclimates, implying a trade-off between temperature and the nutritional quality of host plants. C_LIO_LIPatches of bare ground created by Talpa europaea (European Mole) near R. acetosa plants increased microclimatic temperatures and decoupled the negative correlation between nutritional quality and thermal suitability. C_LIO_LIOur results have implications for the conservation of thermophilous insect herbivores, especially close to their range margins and in the context of climate change. Rather than maximising host plant abundance or nutritional quality, management that creates suitable microclimatic conditions is likely to be critical. Our findings also suggest that, while nitrogen pollution may increase host plant nutritional quality, its negative impacts on microclimate will likely further reduce breeding habitat for L. phlaeas and other insects in grassland habitats. C_LI

Stingless bees are key pollinators in tropical ecosystems, yet their ecological dynamics remain poorly understood in highly seasonal environments such as the seasonally dry tropical forests of Ecuador. These ecosystems experience pronounced climatic seasonality, with sharp transitions between dry and wet periods that strongly affect floral resource availability. Understanding interspecific competition and niche partitioning in such systems is critical, particularly given the global decline of pollinators. We investigated resource use and niche dynamics in two native stingless bees, Melipona mimetica and Scaptotrigona sp., by quantifying pollen, nectar, and resin collection across seasons. Log-linear models were used to test the effects of species, season, and their interaction on resource use, while non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) assessed niche overlap. Contrary to the expectation that niche overlap increases under resource scarcity, we found greater overlap during the wet season, when resources are more abundant. This suggests that both species converge on high-quality floral resources during peak availability, reflecting an adaptive response to strong environmental seasonality. Pollen use remained stable across seasons, consistent with generalist foraging behavior. In contrast, nectar collection increased significantly during the wet season, while resin exhibited a shared seasonal peak, likely associated with synchronized nest construction or maintenance. These findings reveal context-dependent competition dynamics and highlight the role of environmental seasonality in shaping pollinator interactions. Our study provides new insights into the ecology of threatened stingless bees and contributes to their conservation in tropical dry forest ecosystems.

Injuries are common in animals and represent a major threat to individual survival. They can result from inter- or intraspecific conflict, predation, or pugnacious prey. Despite their potential ecological and evolutionary importance, injury patterns remain poorly documented in animal populations. To test whether a species feeding ecology or habitat can predict injury patterns, we quantified injury rates and affected body regions among native ant species collected from different habitats in Bavaria, Germany. Specimens were sampled using pitfall traps, which proved to be an efficient method for injury assessment. Injury rates varied substantially among species and genera, ranging from 0% to 38%. Predatory ant species exhibited higher frequencies of leg injuries, whereas omnivorous species were more frequently injured at the antennae. The distribution of injuries likely reflects both foraging ecology and species-specific wound care behaviors, with a high frequency of trochanter injuries potentially indicating prior amputation events to cope with infected leg injuries, as observed in Lasius alienus. Our findings demonstrate that injury propensity and distribution are shaped by feeding habits and behavioral adaptations, providing comparative evidence that the costs and management of injuries vary systematically among ant species. Our study thus highlights injuries as a measurable axis of selection that may have contributed to the emergence of wound care and other forms of social immunity in ants.

Because Strepsiptera can fly vertically from a standing start, at least [1/4] of their body mass must be dedicated to flight muscle. Adult male Strepsiptera also do not feed and die within a few hours of eclosing, so much normal adult insect anatomy has been discarded, leading to a flight muscle to total mass ratio (FMR) of at least 30%--this is medial for Hymenoptera, but as the lower bound for Strepsiptera, it indicates substantial aerial ability. On account of their high FMR and low wing loading, Strepsiptera are capable of widely varied flight. Moreover, the often incongruous descriptions thereof (that they fly slowly, fly quickly, are clumsy, are graceful, etc.) are paralleled in well-established phases of sex pheromone tracking in moths. For nearly all of their brief eclosed adult lives, male Strepsiptera are airborne, for which they are well-adapted. Correspondingly, strepsipteran propagation is utterly dependent on flight. Thus, flight is the lens through which much strepsipteran ecology is clarified. Accordingly, I photographed free-flying Triozocera texana (nocturnal) in the field and analyzed the images. Strepsipteran wings are remarkably flaccid and potentially teneral, leading to certain flight advantages. At night, spatial acuity is especially poor in tiny insects, but halteres apparently compensate so well that even later derived diurnal Strepsiptera identify calling females chemotactilely--not visually--and shun resolution for high sensitivity. Future directions are discussed, as well as experimental techniques that are problematic when applied to Strepsiptera.

Life-history traits play an important role in insect population dynamics and ecological processes. The azuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis is a common pest of stored legumes and is also widely used as a model species in ecological and evolutionary research. In this study, we tested whether machine learning models could be used to estimate several traits of C. chinensis, including elytral length, development time and adult lifespan. Experimental data were obtained from laboratory populations. The dataset included biological and environmental variables such as strain, treatment condition, developmental day, sex, temperature, and CO2. Six different machine learning models were tested, including linear regression, random forest, support vector machine (SVM), neural network, gradient boosting and AdaBoost. Model performance was evaluated using cross-validation. The coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) were used to measure prediction accuracy. Prediction accuracy differed among traits. Elytral length showed relatively higher predictability than the other traits, while development time was difficult to estimate in most models. Lifespan was easier to predict than the other traits, and the neural network produced one of the highest prediction accuracies among the tested models. Feature importance analysis also showed that factors such as sex and treatment condition contributed to variation in several traits. Machine learning models therefore helped reveal relationships among biological variables and life-history traits in C. chinensis. Combining ecological experiments with machine learning analysis may help improve our understanding of insect traits and may support future studies in insect ecology and pest management.

Insect camera traps are a rapidly developing technology, enabling automated monitoring of insects. However, little has been reported on improving the attractants used for daytime flying insects on such cameras. This study compares the attractiveness of novel, 3D printed, artificial flowers with traditional methods of attracting insects (e.g. pan traps and solid coloured paper squares). We hypothesised that artificial flowers would attract a higher abundance and diversity of insects compared to traditional attractants by more accurately mimicking flowers. Additionally, we examined colour preference and average landing duration on the attractants. Artificial flowers, dry pan traps and paper squares, painted in yellow, white, or blue ultraviolet fluorescent paint, were filmed simultaneously to observe wild insect behavioural responses (landings and approaches). The results indicate overall preference for artificial flowers over the two traditional attractants when considering all insect groups together, and overall colour preferences for blue and yellow. When analysing insect groups separately, hoverflies preferred landing on artificial flowers over the other attractants. Bumblebees preferred approaching artificial flowers, and small insects preferred landing and approaching artificial flowers over the other attractants. Other flies preferred landing on pan traps and paper over artificial flowers. Hoverflies, small insects, wasps, and solitary bees responded more to yellow than the other colours, while bumblebees responded more to blue. Comparisons of landing durations revealed that hoverflies spent longer on the artificial flowers than paper. Other flies spent longer on the pan traps and paper. These results show that artificial flowers could offer an efficient attractant for insect camera traps as they attracted a higher abundance of key pollinating insects (hoverflies and bumblebees), and do not have worse attraction rates for the other insect groups (excluding other flies).

Migration is widely recognized as a strategy for animals to track seasonally shifting resources. Yet, seasonal and spatial dynamics of migration are challenging to study, particularly for difficult-to-track insects. Among insects, monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) have a well-documented fall migration, but spring breeding recolonization remains poorly understood, particularly for the western population. We conducted multi-year surveys across six regions in the western United States to characterize monarch breeding phenology and evaluate three related hypotheses: (i) the successive broods model, with discrete generations shifting activity across the breeding range, (ii) a diffusion-like expansion model with overlapping breeding periods, and (iii) a mid-summer lull model with temporary summer declines in breeding for areas near the overwintering habitat. Monarch immature presence served as an indicator of local breeding activity. Our results do not support the successive broods or mid-summer lull hypotheses. Breeding onset occurred earlier near overwintering areas and gradually expanded north-and eastward, with sustained activity in many regions throughout the season. Termination of breeding also occurred earlier at more distant sites, resulting in longer breeding activity nearer to overwintering habitat. Immature monarch density declined with distance from overwintering areas at onset and termination, suggesting delayed colonization of peripheral regions. Together, these results support a diffusion-like expansion of breeding rather than sequential generational replacement. Western monarchs also do not initiate or terminate breeding in close synchrony with host plant availability, contrary to predictions from resource-tracking theory. These findings highlight fundamental differences between western monarch breeding dynamics and paradigms for eastern monarchs, demonstrating that a single species can employ fundamentally different spatial strategies for recolonizing its breeding range in different regions. More generally, these results distinguish insect migration from systems with direct movements between wintering and breeding habitats, and underscore the value of long-term, landscape-scale monitoring for resolving habitat use across heterogeneous environments.

O_LIChill-susceptible insects such as Drosophila are vulnerable to progressive disruption of ion and water homeostasis during cold stress, and low temperature exposure is a key factor affecting their physiology and distribution. Comparative studies of cold tolerance traditionally use simple or single-condition assays for interspecific comparisons, but the emergence of thermal death time (TDT) models offers a comprehensive framework to assess cold tolerance across different stress intensities and durations. C_LIO_LIHere we construct TDT curves for six Drosophila species, spanning boreal to tropical habitats, using Lt50 estimates across a range of stressful low temperatures (Lt50 ranging from [~] 20 min to 2 days). For all species, the TDT curves provided good fits to the log(Lt50) vs. temperature data (R2 = 0.87 - 0.99). C_LIO_LITDT curves from all species had steep slopes demonstrating that cold injury rate has a high thermal sensitivity such that small changes in temperature have profound effects on survival duration. The interspecific similarity of TDT slopes indicates that a conserved physiological dysfunction underlies cold injury across species. Further, additive accumulation of cold-induced injury in split-dose experiments suggests that acute and moderate cold damage represent the same underlying physiological dysfunction occurring at different rates. C_LIO_LIThe TDT curve intercepts (species-specific tolerance thresholds) differed markedly between boreal, temperate, and tropical species and correlated strongly with their habitat temperature. Data from the present study and meta-analysis of published data find that the inherent species cold tolerance decreases by [~] 0.45 {degrees}C for each {degrees}C colder the winter environment of the species is. When also considering the cold acclimation cues in cold climates we argue the experienced level of cold stress intensity is similar across environments inhabited by the Drosophila genus. This suggests that cold tolerance is important in shaping the fundamental niche of both boreal and tropical species. C_LIO_LIOverall, the TDT analysis of Drosophila at low temperature provides a powerful and predictive tool for quantifying insect cold tolerance. This approach enables detailed cross-species comparisons that allows for both ecological and physiological inference. Thus, TDT curves offer relevant approximations of insect cold resistance that could help predict insect responses to climatic change. C_LI

Intensive agricultural practices directly affect farmland bird and non-target insect populations by modifying their habitats, but may also act indirectly by altering their interactions. Notably, the breeding success of insectivorous birds has been shown to suffer from reduced prey availability. Yet little is known about how agriculture influences host-parasite relationships in wild birds. How agricultural intensity affects parasites, and whether this alleviates or exacerbates the trophic stress imposed on birds therefore remains to be determined. We estimated the number of obligate hematophagous Protocalliphora blowfly larva (Diptera: Calliphoridae) that parasitized nestlings in 2,560 Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) broods along a 10,200-km{superscript 2} gradient of agricultural intensity between 2004 and 2019 in Quebec, Canada. We first modeled two key variables along the causal paths expected to affect Protocalliphora prevalence and load (abundance) within infested broods: nestling hatching date and nestling host availability. Hatching phenology varied by several days with early-spring meteorological conditions and parental age, as for nestling availability (nestling-days), which also decreased along the agriculture intensity gradient as pastures and hay fields were replaced by large-scale, cereal row crops. Nestling availability peaked under low precipitation rates when temperatures reached 18 to 25 {degrees}C. Prevalence and load of blowfly larvae directly increased with nestling availability as well as with the temperature and precipitation that occurred during the larval development and pupation stages. Controlling for nestling availability, Protocalliphora prevalence and load peaked in forested landscapes interspersed by pastures and hay fields and reached their lowest in landscapes dominated by corn and soybean monocultures with minimal tree cover. Agricultural intensity thus reduced infestation likelihood and severity both directly and indirectly, by limiting nestling host availability. This finding is notable given the documented negative effects of agricultural intensity on fledgling number and body condition in farmland birds, even after controlling for insect prey reduction. If agricultural intensity indeed reduces the parasitic pressure exerted by bird blowflies and its consequences for fledgling condition and recruitment, this suggests that other agricultural impacts (e.g., toxicological effects from pesticides) may play a larger role than previously recognized in the severe declines of farmland bird populations observed across the Holarctic. Open research statementThe data supporting this study are not yet publicly available, as they require final harmonization, documentation and anonymization prior to archiving. Upon acceptance of the manuscript, all underlying data and associated code will be permanently deposited in the Zenodo repository and made fully accessible with a DOI.

Honeypot ants represent an example of convergent evolution, where a group of workers specialized in storing liquid food in their crops (i.e., stomach) has independently evolved multiple times across different ant genera. While seasonal resource scarcity and arid conditions are thought to drive the evolution of repletism, the role of environmental variables in this process has not been tested. With this is mind, species ensemble models were computed to assess suitability and richness areas, and the importance of predictors. Predictor importance was compared between genera and groups occupying a similar geographical area. Niche overlap and similarity between honeypot ant species were also evaluated to determine whether they occupy similar environmental spaces. Similarity was mainly found within genera, and Leptomyrmex and Myrmecocystus showed striking niche differences. Overall, Leptomyrmex distribution was mainly influenced by atmospheric bioclimatic variables like precipitation and temperature, while Myrmecocystus had soil bioclimatic variables as the most important predictors for their current distribution. Our results indicate that honeypot ants species currently do not occupy the same environmental space, and are not experiencing the same contemporary environmental stressors. While our results suggest that contemporary environmental factors cannot explain the convergence of honeypot ants, future research will examine past climatic conditions along with investigations into the ant genomes to understand more about the causes and consequences of the convergence.

Istocheta aldrichi (Diptera: Tachinidae), a specialist parasitoid of the invasive Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), was released to eastern North America in the 1920s as part of a classical biological control program. Further releases are being considered in different regions of North America and Europe where P. japonica is establishing. Successful releases of the biocontrol agent depend on identifying efficient techniques for collecting parasitized hosts from the field and rearing the parasitoid through diapause to obtain I. aldrichi adults. In this study, we evaluated how the collection date, the collection method (hand-picking vs. regular traps vs. modified traps) and rearing conditions (food provision and substrate type) of parasitized hosts influence I. aldrichi pupariation and emergence. The proportion of parasitized beetles yielding I. aldrichi puparia decreased considerably as the season progressed. Rearing conditions immediately after collection influenced both puparium yield and quality: withholding food from parasitized P. japonica slightly increased puparium yield but reduced puparium weight, while the effect of food provision on subsequent overwintering survival depended on rearing substrate. Finally, simple modifications to commercial traps (larger, ventilated, containers with added food source and substrate) collected more beetles than regular traps and promoted successful development of the parasitoid to the puparium stage. Our results are used to suggest basic guidelines for collecting and rearing I. aldrichi in experimental research and applied biological control of P. japonica.

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD), the difference in body size between males and females, typically conforms to Renschs rule across species: SSD increases with body size when males are larger but decreases when females are larger. Although this macroevolutionary pattern has been extensively documented, intraspecific analyses remain rare, yet they are essential for understanding the proximate mechanisms underlying the origin and maintenance of sexual dimorphism. In particular, it remains unclear whether within-species variation in SSD is driven primarily by sex-specific differences in growth rate or in development time. Here, we addressed this question by examining SSD scaling in inbred lines of Drosophila melanogaster from the well-established Drosophila melanogaster Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP) reared under two thermal environments (25 {degrees}C and 28 {degrees}C). Females were consistently larger than males, resulting in pronounced female-biased SSD across different lines of this model insect. Moreover, SSD increased with overall body size, representing a reversal of Renschs rule at the intraspecific level. This scaling pattern was largely explained by higher female growth rates rather than sexual differences in development time. Elevated temperature reduced SSD by decreasing female growth rate while slightly enhancing that of males. Together, our results demonstrate that Renschs rule does not universally apply at intraspecific level and underscore the critical role of growth rate and environmental sensitivity in shaping SSD at the intraspecific level.

O_LIFrugivores vary in their selection of fruit traits and their fruit handling methods, leading to differences in the plant species they consume for fruits. While fruit consumption patterns of birds are relatively well understood, much less is known about those of mammals. C_LIO_LIGiven the wide morphological and physiological diversity of mammals, fruit consumption patterns and fruit traits selected by different mammal groups may vary substantially. C_LIO_LIWe investigated differences in fruit consumption among three mammal groups - primates, herbivores, and carnivores - in Asia based on peer-reviewed and secondary literature. We assessed both morphological traits and taxonomic composition and compared patterns across vegetation types and for figs and non-figs. We found that primates (29%) and carnivores (21%) consumed more unique fruit genera than herbivores (6%). Carnivores and primates shared more fruit genera with each other (17%) than with herbivores. These patterns were consistent across vegetation types and for figs and non-figs. C_LIO_LIMorphological traits such as fruit size, colour, type, habit, seed number, and seed arillation showed no major differences among mammal groups. C_LIO_LIThere was no significant relationship between mammal body size and the mean or maximum fruit diameter consumed. However, among mammals that handle fruits exclusively with their mouthparts, body size was positively related to the maximum fruit diameter consumed. In contrast, for mammals that handle fruits using opposable thumbs (primates), body size showed a negative relationship with the mean fruit size consumed. There was no significant relationship between mammal activity patterns and the colour of the fruits they consumed. C_LIO_LIOur results suggest that fruit consumption patterns among mammal groups are not strongly differentiated by the morphological traits investigated; however, carnivores and primates are more similar in their preferred fruit genera. Moreover, morphological trait selection may be influenced by fruit handling methods. C_LIO_LIHerbivores consumed larger fruits and, like primates, preferred dull-coloured fruits, whereas carnivores more often fed on liana and shrub fruits across a wider colour range C_LIO_LIFuture research should focus on chemical and quantitative visual traits, such as volatile profiles and nutritional composition, to better understand the drivers of mammal fruit consumption. C_LI

Rapid changes to weather caused by climate change have a negative effect on much of the worlds animal populations and species. Some populations are more vulnerable than others to the effects of climate change, and individuals are particularly vulnerable during early development. Good embryonic development is important for vertebrate species because this can dictate their breeding success and survival rates, and disruptions to this phase can have far reaching fitness effects that can last into adulthood and beyond. We looked at the impact of weather (ambient temperature, rainfall and wind speed) on the embryonic development of thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda) at two different latitudes in Patagonia, Chile. We measured the heart rate of embryos just before hatching using an egg buddy machine to determine embryonic development. Optimum development of nestlings is important for fledging, so it is essential that embryonic development is successful. We studied two populations. One is situated in a temperate rainforest on the northern border of Patagonia called Pucon which we studied in 2018 and 2019, with mild temperatures (12 degrees Celsius), high rainfall (636ml) and low wind speeds (6.3km/h). The other is in a sub-Antarctic old growth forest in southern Patagonia called Navarino island which we studied in 2018, 2019 and 2023, which is comparatively drier (138ml), colder (8.3 degrees Celsius) and has higher average wind speeds (16.6km/h). We found that embryonic development was better in the south compared to the north, indicated by higher embryo heart rates near hatching in the south. Development of embryos in the northern site was slower when conditions were cold and windy. Development of embryos in the southern site was unaffected by temperature, rainfall or wind speeds. In northern Patagonia, when minimum temperatures were low and wind speeds high during the period encompassing clutch completion, initiation of full incubation and during incubation, have a negative impact on embryonic development. In contrast, when Rayaditos in the southern population experience slow embryonic development, they extend the incubation period allowing embryos more time to develop before hatching. Our study shows that in the north of Patagonia embryonic development declines over years and that Rayaditos seem not to have adapted to dealing with climate change. On the other hand, in the south of Patagonia, embryonic development is unaffected by climatic factors, suggesting that Rayaditos are adapting to climate change through extending their incubation periods, allowing embryos to fully develop before hatching. It appears that Rayaditos in the northern population are not extending their incubation periods and are not adapting to the threats posed by climate change. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its kind to examine embryonic development in the field and to associate this to changing weather patterns whilst highlighting specific days on which development is influenced.

The notion of "pollinator diversity" is central to most research and interpretations in animal pollination ecology. Nevertheless, when the term "diversity" is applied to pollinators its usage is often closer to the vernacular meaning (variety of kinds) than to concepts rooted in the "ecological diversity" tradition of community and statistical ecology. This paper attempts to fill a conspicuous knowledge gap in pollination ecology by presenting a comprehensive analysis of patterns of species abundance and diversity in a hyperdiverse insect pollinator assemblage from well-preserved Mediterranean montane habitats of southeastern Spain. Data on pollinator visitation to flowers of the community of entomophilous plants (288 species) were gathered over a 29-year period, and [~]95% of the pollinator individuals recorded were identified to species, totalling 46,401 individuals in 845 species. The shape of species abundance distributions (SADs) was virtually identical at regional (N = 56 sites) and local (one intensively studied site) scales, and SADs were best predicted by the log-series distribution. Pollinator diversity estimates corresponding to the first three Hill numbers (Species richness, Shannon diversity and Simpson diversity; 0D, 1D and 2D, respectively) were obtained for each plant species x site x year combinations ("sampling occasions", N = 472). Pollinator diversity measures varied widely among plant species; their frequency distributions were continuous, unimodal and strongly right-skewed; and variation was related to plant phylogeny, floral features (open vs. restrictive perianth, single flower vs. flower packet), and pollinator visitation to flowers and flowering patches. Pollinator diversity of individual plant species depended on habitat type, with those from dolomitic outcrops, rock cliffs and forest interior having the least diverse pollinators. 0D, 1D and 2D tended to vary independently of each other among habitats and years, revealing a complex spatio-temporal patterning of pollinator species richness and dominance. Estimated proportions of undetected pollinator diversity ("dark diversity") depended on insect order (highest for Diptera) and diversity measure (highest for 0D). Adoption of community ecology tools (SAD, sampling adequacy estimation, complementary diversity measures) to assess pollinator diversity will improve our ability to elucidate pollinator responses to natural and anthropogenic environmental change and permit hitherto unexplored questions in pollination ecology. "The ecologist sees in any measure of diversity an expression of the possibilities of constructing feedback systems or any sort of links, in a given assemblage of species" Margalef (1968, p. 19).